FOCUS - Broad and narrow focus
-Broad focus means that the focus domain is the whole IP: everything in the IP is brought
into focus. USED: to answer questions: what happened?
-Narrow focus only part of what we say is brought into focus.
-Contrastive focus : the nuclear accent draws attention to a contrast the speaker is making.
ex: You may have ` started your essay, but have you ` finished your essay?
In such cases the repeated, non-contrastive material (here, the second your essay) is often
replaced by a pronoun, or entirely omitted.
ex: You may have ` started your essay, but have you ` finished it?
-Any word can be accented for contrast, including a function word. A pronoun, a preposition,
virtually any word, can bear the nucleus, if it is contrastive:
ex: I’m writing a letter. What are you doing?
-Pronouns and demonstratives
we do not usually accent personal pronouns. Ex:
Are you going to / tell him?
We do accent pronouns if it is placed in contrastive focus. We frequently want to emphasize
a contrast between one person and another.
ex: I’m as surprised as you are. / I know how `she feels, but how do `you feel?
Pronominal determiners (my, your, his, etc) may be nuclear for the same reason.
In `my opinion
From `point of view
The complement of the verb to be regularly receives the nucleus, even if it is a pronoun. This
is another reason to locate the nucleus on a pronoun, can often be analysed as involving
narrow or contrastive focus:
Who 's / that? - It 's `me.
The nucleus remains on the pronoun if it and the verb are ellipted.
Who’s / that? - `Me.
The same idea can be expressed with the pronoun as subject. It is still in focus, and bears
the nucleus:
Who’s / there? - `I am.
The general rule is that pronouns are stressed only if they are contrastive.
-How can I get to the `lecture hall? - Follow `me.
English also has a number of idioms involving fixed tonicity: fossilized expressions said with
a particular intonation. (examples with pronouns having a FALLING NUCLEAR TONE)
Good
for `you! - Bully for `you!
In clause-final position the possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) tend
inherently to convey new information and so attract the nucleus. They are usually in implicit
contrast with other possessive expressions. Which one is `yours? / Give me hers, and I take
‘his.
Final demonstratives, too, namely this, that, these, those, tend to convey new information,
and attract the nucleus.
Look at ‘this! / Who’s ‘that?
there usually attracts the nucleus if it refers to a place that is new (not previously mentioned)
Hold it right there!
London’s a long way a’way. How long will it take to get
there? (not nucleus because the
place is given)
Reflexive, reciprocal and indefinite pronouns.
The most frequent use of a reflexive pronoun (myself, yourselves, etc) is for emphasis, as
you might expect, it is accented.
-I’ll write to him my’self. - He did it all by him’self.
they are used as true reflexives - as the object of the verb or rather that this is your opinion,
but that others may not share it.
I think that’s `right, my`self.
The reciprocal pronouns of each other and one another are usually not contrastive, and
therefore not accented.
I think we all ought to ‘help one another.
The same applies to the indefinite pronouns someone, somebody, something, anyone,
anybody, anything.
Can you see anyone?
indefinite pronouns can nevertheless exceptionally receive the nuclear accent for emphasis.
What’s the matter? / I thought I heard someone.
Contrastive focus overrides other factors
-We sometimes put the nucleus on a ‘given’ item because we need to place the item in
contrastive focus. This arises particularly when we correct another speaker. Because it is in
contrast, the repeated material nevertheless receives the nuclear accent.
-He’s a famous `actor. / Well, not exactly an actor ; more a `singer.
Contrastive focus on polarity or tense
Sometimes the speaker wants to emphasize the polarity of a verb, or its tense. In both this
may cause the nucleus to go on an auxiliary or modal verb.
When we deny the truth of an assertion made by the other speaker, we can focus on the
negative word. This is marked negative. (The nucleus goes either on the word not or on the
word containing the negation.)
Peter could run a marathon. - He `couldn’t run a marathon! /
Oops, sorry, you’re busy. - I’m not busy.
we focus on the word that indicates positive polarity. This is a marked positive. The nucleus
usually goes on a form of the verb to be or on a modal or auxiliary verb.
You’re not involved. - Oh but I am involved!
Note that if the negation word is followed by a ‘new’ lexical item the nucleus goes on that
new lexical item, even though the speaker’s main content may be the negation.
Have some more milk. - I don’t want any more milk.
where there is a contrast involving the subject of the clause as well as one involving polarity.
English often focuses on the subject while - illogically? - not accenting the actual polarity
word. This pattern usually involves a fall-rise tone.
‘Lawrence didn’t pass the test, though the ‘rest of us did.
There is also another possible reason for placing the nucleus on the word that carries the
indication of polarity: namely, as a device for adding emphasis to an exclamation. This is a
kind of contrastive focus, though the contrast is implicit.
You `have done well! Daddy `will be pleased.
As with polarity, so with tense. We focus on an auxiliary or modal verb to emphasize that
we are talking about the past not the present, or the future not the past.
Are you a vegetarian? - Well, I `used to be, but now I eat `meat.
CONTRASTIVE FOCUS IS THE COMMONEST REASON FOR A FUNCTION WORD TO
RECEIVE THE NUCLEUS…
Dynamic focus
Focus is not static but dynamic. As a conversation progresses, speakers constantly update
what they are focusing on.
- `Vernon, there’s ‘someone at the ‘door. ‘Answer it, would you?
- There’s a ‘man at the door. He’s collecting for a ‘charity.
In the father’s utterance, door was new information, and therefore placed the focus. In the
son’s reply, it is given, and so no longer in focus.
By varying the tonicity we make a particular IP pragmatically appropriate for the particular
circumstances in which it is used.
Nucleus on a function word
-Narrow focus: yes-no answers and tags.
A yes no question is a query about polarity. A direct answer to a yes-no question involves
narrow focus on polarity and the word that indicates it. To give a direct answer, we can say
yes or no.
Have you finished? Yes
The focus is on the polarity, so we put the nucleus on the verb. Have you finished? Yes, I
have.
It is also possible to deaccent the initial yes or no.
Have you finished? Yes, I have.
Although the word not is accentable, the n’t of a contracted form is not: instead, the accent
goes on the stressed syllable of the word containing n’t:
Is that a firearm? No, it’s not.
Notice the difference between narrow focus on polarity in answer to a yes-no question and
narrow focus on a noun phrase in answer to a wh question.
Is Peter coming? Yes, he is. / Yes, Peter is coming.
Who’s coming? Peter is. / Peter’s coming.
We also get a nucleus on the polarity word in tag-like questions consisting of a verb plus a
pronoun. These, too, involve narrow focus on polarity.
We’re nearly ready. Are you?
Prepositions
We have seen that prepositions are usually not accented unless they are brought into
contrastive focus. However, there are two circumstances in which the broad focus of the
nucleus is located on a preposition. Both involve wh questions in which there is no lexical
material.
The first is when the preposition functions as the complement of to be.
Look at this button. What’s it for? /
Wh + to be
A sentence such as how are you? consists of function words only. There are no lexical
items. Yet the nucleus must go somewhere.
If a direct or indirect wh question has the pattern wh word - be - pronoun, then the nucleus
goes on the verb to be itself. This need not involve narrow or contrastive focus of any kind.
How are you? / Tell me how you are. ( greeting someone)
What is it? / Tell me what it is. (being shown something)
Who is it? / I wonder who it is. (hearing someone at the door)
If a speaker answers the question HOW ARE YOU by repeating the same words back, there
is normally a change of tonicity. The answer has a contrastive focus on.
How are you? - Fine, thanks. // How are you?
If the verb to be consists of more than one word, the nucleus goes on the second of them:
Welcome back! / How’s it been?
If the word following be in a wh question of this type is a demonstrative rather than a
pronoun, then the nucleus tends to go on the demonstrative. This applies whenever the
demonstratives throw focus onto something (treated as) new:
Who’s that? / What’s this?
Where 's that?
A demonstrative can be used like a pronoun, referring to something already given. In that
case, the nucleus reverts to the verb:
Who is that?
Conversely, a pronoun can be used like a demonstrative, focused and referring to someone
new:
Who’s she?
Other function words that attract the nucleus
There are a few words that regularly attract the nucleus despite being function words: Too,
anyhow, and their synonyms.
When used in the meaning ‘also’, too is usually accented.
Same rule applies to its synonym as well, all, either and to the negative equivalent either.
The TOO refers to the accented item that immediately precedes it.
I’m singing, too. / Mary’s going to invite Peter, too.
We’re going to the beach. Why don’t you come along as well?
I don’t like Jim, and I don’t like Tammy either.
The sentence adverb anyway and its synonym anyhow are almost always nuclear. They are
said with a reinforcing fall.
This idea may not `work, but let’s try it `anyway. or… but let’s `try
it, anyway.
Anyhow, I’ve got to be going, now.
Anyway,why are you looking at my letters?
Empty words and pro - forms
There are various categories of word and phrase that tend not to receive the nucleus, even
though they may be the last lexical item in an IP.
General nouns such as things, people. Such empty words are usually not accented.
Expressions such as the man, that woman, mean little more than he, she. Like pronouns,
therefore, they are not accented when used in this way.
Have a ‘word with the guy. / I can’t ‘stand that woman.
There are several idiomatic expressions in which some is accented (often bearing a fall-rise
nuclear tone), while the following noun is not.
For `some reason. I keep forgetting to do it. /
In `some cases…
This represents a kind of fossilized implication, namely a contrast with other reasons, cases,
days, times, etc.
Numerals (one,two,three..) tend to be accented, since they have considerable
semantic content. However, when one is used as a pronoun - a pro-form - it is not accented
and so does not take the nucleus.
Can I borrow your `ruler? / I haven’t got one.
With a plural or a mass noun, the pro-form corresponding to one is some or any. When used
in this way, some and any are not accented.
Could I borrow some `sugar? / I haven’t got any.
Other function words that attract the nucleus
Notably too, anyhow and their synonyms.
Mary wants some ice cream, and Peter wants some, too.
The same rules apply to its synonym as well and to the negative equivalent either.
We’re going to the beach. Why don’t you come along as well?
I don’t like Jim, and I don’t like Tammy either.
The sentence adverb anyway and its synonym anyhow are almost always nuclear. They are
said with a reinforcing fall.
Anyhow, I’ve got to be going, now.
Anyway,why are you looking at my letters?
Vocatives
A vocative at the beginning of an utterance is accented, and normally has its own IP, thus
becoming nuclear.
Humphrey! Lovely to see you again.
accent a vocative when we want to indicate who we are talking to.
Hi, Peter!
Perhaps, there is no one else present. Then the Final vocative is usually not accented but
attached to the preceding IP. (as part of the tail)
Nice to see you again, Humphrey.
Hi, peter!
Even if a final vocative appears to include new information directed towards the known
addressed, it remains unaccented.
I love you, my little dimpled one.
Reporting clauses
When reporting clauses follow quoted words, they are usually out of focus. The nucleus
goes on the appropriate item among the quoted words, and the reporting clause forms a tail
to the IP.
How are you doing? he asked. / I don’t believe it, she explained.
Adverbs of time and place
Although adverbs in general are usually accented, adverbs and adverbial phrases of time
and place are often not accented when at the end of an IP, even if they contain new
information.
I had an unexpected letter yesterday. / Does a Mr Pomfrey live here?
This do not apply in sentences where the sense of the verb would be incomplete without the
final adverbial.
Put it on the table.
In statements, final adverbs and adverbials of time and place may bear the nucleus in a
separate IP.
I had an unexpected letter, yesterday.
Other unfocused adverbs and adverbials
Descriptive adverbs: adverbs of manner that modify the verb, do tend to bear the nucleus if
they are at the end of the clause.
You’ve answered very well!/ He performed brilliantly!
Adverbs of place or manner, they go in the tail, with the nucleus on some earlier word.
Straightforward (1st list)
then / though/ or so / even/ sort of thing / as it were/ a bit / you know
Following (2nd list)
if necessary / of course / please / thanks / thank you / in a way / of thereabouts / for a
change / for ….’s sake/ in fact / as a matter of fact / enough / I would , should, have thought /
I imagine
the adverb enough is usually unaccented when it follows an adjective. As an adjective or
noun, though, it attracts the nucleus in the usual way.
These shoes are not big enough. / You haven’t promised enough.
In general, the adverb INDEED is accented.
Thank you very much indeed.
The word AGAIN, when at the end of a clause, is usually accented if used in its basic sense
of ‘one more time’, since in that sense it is often contrastive. However, it is not accented
when it means ‘back to a previous state’, nor in other more or less idiomatic uses.
Could you use that again? / What did you say your name was again?
Etcetera and its synonyms are usually kept out of focus. They sell cards, calendars, etc.
PHRASAL VERBS
Verbs plus adverbial particle
The general rule is that phrasal verbs are lexically double stressed, with the primary stress
going on the particle. If the nucleus comes on a phrasal verb, the word on which this nucleus
is located is therefore typically the particle.
How are you getting on? / The prisoner broke down.
verbs plus prepositional particles.
These are mostly lexically single stresses, with the primary stress going on the verb. The
second element, the preposition, being unstressed, does not get accented. If the nucleus
comes on a prepositional verb, the word on which this nucleus is located is typically the verb
itself.
Here are photos. May I look at them?
Typical cases are passivization, relative clauses and wh questions. The preposition goes in
the tail, although phonetically it retains its strong form.
Which of them can you really rely on?
(wh question) / It needs to be thoroughly looked at (passive) / Are these the books I sent for?
(relative)
Adverb or preposition?
Adverbs and adverbial particles are usually accented, prepositions and prepositional
particles are not.
As you might expect, they are typically accented when used as adverbs but not when used
as prepositions. If they are at the end of the clause, adverbs attract the nucleus but
prepositions repel it.
adverbial particle: A workman was walking by. / They intend to carry on.
preposition: I haven’t got enough light to see by. / What are you talking about?
Separated particles
There is one important case where the nucleus does not fall on the adverbial particle of a
phrasal verb. This is when the particle has been separated from the verb. When this
happens, the object bears the nucleus if it is lexically filled.
Rule: in the case of a lexical object and a separated particle, the nucleus goes by default on
the object.
Take your shoes off!
Nucleus on the last noun
FINAL VERBS AND ADJECTIVES
we put the nucleus on a noun where possible, in preference to other word classes.
A final verb is usually unaccented, and the nucleus goes on a preceding noun.
How’s the homework going? / Which book did you choose?
This applies in particular to final defining relative clauses. Just look at the tie he’s wearing!
Where’s that salad I was eating?
The same unaccented applies to the final adjective in sentences such as. We’re going to get
the table ready.
There is no preceding noun to attract the nucleus - so the nucleus goes on the last lexical
item (the verb or adjective), as expected:
Just look at what he’s wearing! / What did she say?/ HOW’S IT GOING?
I’ve got some work to do. (np is lexical, so the nuclear accent goes on the noun)
We haven’t finished. There’s still some washing to do. / He’s got some writing to do.
The constructions in question mostly involve a syntactic movement of some kind, taking a
noun phrase that would otherwise follow the verb and moving it to an earlier position. This
leaves the verb at the end.
Several idiomatic or fossilised expressions have a fixed tonicity that can be explained by the
tendency to place the nucleus on a noun rather than a verb.
Events
the nucleus tends to be located on the subject, provided it is lexically filled, even if the verb
contains apparently new information.
The phone’s ringing.
Some event sentences involve an adjective as well as a verb, and we again see the noun
receiving the nuclear accent, rather than the verb or the adjective.
Your zip’s come undone.
descriptions or the weather count as event sentences of this type.
It’s a funny day: the sun is shining, but there’s a wind springing up.
So do statements relating to unpleasant bodily sensations.
My arm’s hurting.
ACCENTING OLD MATERIAL
Reusing the other speaker’s words
Since the second speaker wishes to comment on this material, or to query it, naturally he
accents it.
I can’t stand whisky . / You can’t stand whisky.
Sometimes the echoed word, although repeated, nevertheless clearly conveys new
information.
you say your name’s Smith? / Yes, Smith.
Wells - Exceptions to the LLI .pdf
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