1. Classification of verbs:
There are three major types of verbs: -lexical verbs
-primary auxiliary verbs
-secondary auxiliary verbs
Lexical verbs:
-they are the central element in the clause
-they carry meaning
-they are an open class
-they stand alone or are preceded by one or more auxiliary verbs
-they often occur as multiword units
Examples: Children love candies.
Please, turn on the lights.
Primary auxiliary verbs:
-structural words
-closed class system
-define the action, state or process denote by the lexical verb
-BE:used in the formation of progressive aspects and in the formation of the passive
voice.
Examples: The crowd was leaving when we got there
A state of emergency has been declared due to covid-19.
-HAVE:used in the formation of perfect tenses and in causative constructions
Examples: I have been to Rome three times.
Do you have your car washed or do you wash it yourself?
-DO:dummy operator/ used in positive sentences to make emphasis on the meaning
of the main verb/ used to make commands, invitations or suggestions.
Examples: My son doesn't smoke in his bedroom.
I did have a protractor, but it broke. (protractor=transportador)
Do shut up!
Primary auxiliary verbs working as lexical verbs
-Be: to exist or be located. The school is near the park.
-Have: possess, obtain, eat, drink, experience. She has a dog.
-Do: perform, carry out an activity or task. She does her homework.
Secondary auxiliary verbs:
-they are always FINITE
-they express stance meanings, related to possibility, necessity and obligation.
-they have only one form each= defective
-may -must -would
-might -shall -ought to *
-can -should -dare *
-could -will -need *
*algunos los consideran y otros no.
Semi-modals verbs:
-multi-words constructions that function like modal verbs.
-they express meaning which can usually be paraphrased with a central modal verb.
-some are fixed expressions, which cannot be inflected for tense or person.
-However, some others can be marked for tense and person.
-have to -used to
-be supposed to -be going to
-be able to -be to
Formation of tag questions:
a. a positive tag follows a negative statement
negative sentence + positive tag
Tom won’t be late, will he?
b. a negative tag follows an affirmative sentence
positive sentence + negative tag
They were very angry, weren't they?
c. after “let’s….” the tag question is “shall we?”:
Let’s go out for a walk, shall we?
d. after the imperative (do/don’t do sth) the tag is: “will you?” :
Open the door, will you?
e. a statement containing words such as none, nobody, hardly, any, etc is
treated as a negative statement
He hardly ever makes a mistake, does he?
f. when the subject is nobody/anybody/everybody/etc…the pronoun “they” is
used in the tag.
Everybody liked the play, didn’t they?
g. we say: “aren’t I?” :
I’m late, aren’t I?
2. Finite and non-finite forms of the verb:
Every verb (except modal verbs and used to) can be used with three simple finite and
non-finite forms.
Finite forms:
-show tense, person and number (conjugated) and voice
-they can occur as the only verbal form in an independent clause
-there is usually subject-verb agreement between the subject and the finite form
There is three finite forms:
1.The base:
●
Indicative mood: used in simple present tense with all the persons, except for
3rd person singular.
Example: They go to school by bus every day.
●
Imperative mood: used with all the persons to refer to commands, orders,
requests, etc.
Example: Be quiet!
●
Subjunctive mood: used in the present subjunctive with all the persons
Example: The judge demands that the prisoner be released.
2.The 3rd person singular:
● used in the simple present with the 3rd person singular
Example: Peter goes to the theatre whenever he finds some free time.
3.The past form:
● Indicative mood: used in the simple past with all the persons.
Example: The students went on a trip last month.
● Refer to hypothetical situations in the present or the future
Example: I wished I lived in a bigger house.
●
Subjunctive mood: used only with the form “were” of the verb to be (were
subjunctive)
Example: If I were in shour shoes, I would tell the truth.
Non-finite forms:
-doesn’t show tense, person and number
-can NEVER occur as the only verbal form in an independent clause
-they can be part of a finite verb phrase
-they have nominal, adjectival or adverbial function
● The infinitive: -the to infinitive (to go)To err is human.
-the bare infinitive (go) :
He made me laugh
-the perfect infinitive (have gone): He pretended to have seen the
film.
● The ing form: it can be a gerund or the present participle
Examples: Going to the beach is fantastic. (gerundial)
They like going to the cinema. (gerundial)
My parents are going away (present participle)
NOTE:
→ The gerund is a verb that functions as a noun referring to an action, a
process or a state.
→The present participle is a form of a verb used as a verb in continuous
tenses, an adverb or an adjective.
Gerund:
Building a tree house is very fun.
Dancing is my favorite activity.
Being happy is more important than appearing happy.
Her living in the shopping district makes it easier for us to see her.
Present participle:
I was slowly building the house.
A wonderful rainbow appeared behind the police station, leaving behind different
colours.
This area is frightening.
Your dress is amazing.
● The ed or past participle:
Examples: She has gone to Australia.
This poem was written by a nine-year old boy.
Modals are always finite, thus, all verbal forms beginning with a modal are finite.
3. Verbal categories:
A finite verb has four verbal categories:
1. Tense:
- It is a linguistic expression or category.
-It refers to the form of the verb that expresses a time-relation.
- Is a grammatical category that is realized by verb inflexion.
-Since English has no future inflected form of the verb, there are two main
tenses: present tense and past tense.
She studies English at University. (Present Tense)
She worked as a secretary in her youth. (Past tense)
TENSE≠TIME
2. Mood:
→Indicative mood: mood of “facts” and “reality”.
E.g.: I love hunting. He had plenty of money
→Imperative mood: mood of orders, commands, etc…
E.g.: Don’t bother! / Come forward! / Be careful!
→Subjunctive mood:often called the mood of “dreams” and “hypotheses''.
It generally expresses meanings related to orders and requirements
(mandative subjunctive).
It is also found in some fixed expressions (formulaic subjunctive).
Another frequent use of the subjunctive mood is in hypothetical situations in
the past with the verb “were”.
E.g.: It is mandatory that he leave/ not leave now. / God bless you. / If it
weren’t raining, we would be able to give the party. (It is raining now).
3. Voice: it can be active or passive
E.g.: A lot of women read “The Evening Standard” →Active Voice
“The Evening Standard” is read by a lot of women. →Passive Voice
4. Aspect: the grammatical category that reflects the way in which the meaning
of a verb is viewed with respect to time.
present perfect
past perfect
↓↓↓
perfect grammatical aspect
present progressive
past progressive
↓↓↓
progressive grammatical aspect
present perfect progressive
past perfect progressive
↓↓↓
perfect progressive grammatical aspect
simple present
simple past
↓↓↓
simple or non-progressive gram aspect
4. b Aspectual meaning:
Perfective→the situation is presented as an event, viewed as complete,
finished.
Imperfective→ the situation is presented as a process, viewed as
incomplete, not finished .
Examples:
-My eldest brother played rugby every Sunday while he was at school.
(Nonprogressive/simple grammatical aspect- Imperfective aspectual meaning)
7.
- My eldest brother played rugby for two years. (Non-Progressive/simple
grammatical aspect-Perfective aspectual meaning)
Progressive forms usually denote imperfective aspectual meaning (except
for the use of Present Progressive Tense with future time reference, for
instance); while simple or non-progressive forms usually denote perfective
aspectual meaning.
4. Dynamic and Stative Verbs:
DYNAMIC
STATIVE
-They express actions we perform (most
verbs in English are dynamic)
- Express states or experiences we have to
undergo, and as such they are beyond our
control
-Actions that we can start or stop at will and
they have a clear beginning and end
-Actions that cannot be started or stopped
at will
-They can be used in the progressive
grammatical aspect
-These verbs do not normally occur in the
progressive or durative aspect since there
can be no conception of progression in
states of affairs
-I have worked very little lately
-German is similar to english. ( the stative
verb per excellence is the verb to be. )
Stative verbs can be divided into five classes:
1. States of being and having: be, appear, seem, contain, depend, have(posses),
belong, own, resemble, happy.
2. Intellectual states: believe, think, disagree, know, realize, think , understand,
remember, forget, see(understand), expect(think)
3. States of emotions or attitudes: love, hate, like, want, wish, prefer.
4. States of bodily sensation: ache, hurt, itch, tickle
5. States of perception: feel, hear, see, smell, taste.
5. Verb tenses:
PRESENT TENSES
Simple present
Present progressive
I/you/we/they → p+v /do, don't
He / she/ it → p+v+”s”/ does, doesn’t
p+ to be+ v+ ing
-general truths
-natural or physical laws of nature
-habitual actions
-permanent actions or situations
-with performative verbs (declare, forgive,
curse, bless, etc)
-to report a series of actions that have little
duration
-with stative verbs: I am a teacher
-In exclamatory sentences with here and
there
-sth that is happening at the moment of
speaking
-sth happening around the moment of
speaking
-changing situations
-to show annoyance
-a series of momentary, short, continuous
acts
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Progressive
I/you/we/they → p+have+v(3c)
He/ she / it → p+has+v(3c)
I/you/we/they → p+have+been+v+ing
He/ she / it → p+has+been+v+ing
-Actions which started in the past and have
non stopped(incomplete action)
-Actions that took place in the past but the
results are present
-Experiences
-Activities that have been completed during
-same uses as the present perfect simple
but the emphasis here is on the duration of
the action
a period of time that has still not finished at
the moment of speaking
-Actions that have been completed very
recently
-Actions that happened in the past but the
time is not important
PAST TENSES:
Simple Past
Past Progressive
p+v(2c)
did/didn’t
you/we/they → were+v+ing
I/He/She/It → was+v+ing
-to indicate activities or states in the past,
without indicating any connection with the
present.
-past states/facts/habits/permanent
situations in the past
-for a series of completed actions in the
past
-for actions completed at a definite time
-when the action clearly took place in the
past although the time is not mentioned
-to denote events in progress at a point in
the past
-to indicate that an activity or state was in
progress when another action occurred
-to denote two simultaneous past actions
-to describe the atmosphere, setting in an
introduction to a story
-to express a series of repeated events in
the past
-to denote temporary repeated actions in
the past
-to describe repeated unplanned events, in
combination with frequency adverbs such
as always or constantly (She was always
complaining about everything)
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Progressive
p+had+v(3c)
p+had+been+v+ing
-to show the order of two past events. The
past perfect shows the earlier action and
the past simple shows the later action
-used to denote an actions which had a
result in the past
-to indicate that an activity was still going on
at a given period of time in the past.
-to denote an action which had a result in
the past
FUTURE REFERENCE:
Simple Future
Future Progressive
p+will+v
p+will+be+v+ing
-to talk about events which are certain to
happen in the future
-to express predictions based on the
speaker's belief
-on the spot decisions
-to express promises, threats, warnings,
requests, hopes.
-to denote an action that will be in progress
at a point in the future
-to denote sth that has been arranged,
planned or decided upon
-to indicate that an activity or state will
extend over the whole of a future period of
time.
Future perfect/ Future Perfect Progressive
Be going to+ infinitive
p+will+have+v(3c) /
p+will+have+been+v+ing
-refer to activities that by a particular point
in the future will be regarded as complete,
finished
I’ll have left when you read this letter
-to refer to an action or activity that will
extend and include a point or period of time
in the future.
They will have been living abroad for two
years next August.
-for plans or intentions
-future result of a present cause
-predictions based on evidence
Simple present
Present progressive
-actions part of a timetable
-future of the calendar
-to refer to a previous arrangement
-future refusal
6. Uses of the Subjunctive Mood in English
The Present Subjunctive:
a. Mandative Subjunctive: used in a that-clause after an expression of such
notions as demand, recommendation, proposal,
intention,suggestion,requirement, request.
This subjunctive takes the base form of the verb
They suggested
The suggestion was that he leave immediately
It was essential
Negative subjunctive: They ordered that he not leave
b. Formulaic Subjunctive: used in certain set expressions
God save the Queen
Long live the King
God bless you
The Past Subjunctive: is hypothetical in meaning. Used in conditional and concessive
clauses and in subordinate clauses after wish and suppose.
If I were a rich man, I would …..
7. Passive Voice:
to be+ past participle =
passive voice
-Only possible with some transitive verbs(verbs that can be followed by an object)
Omission of the agent:
a. when the agent is obvious, not known, not important or generalised
b. in journalistic and scientific writing bc omitting the doer of the action gives the text an
objective and impersonal tone
c. when you want to avoid blame or responsibility
Retention of the agent:
a. when we need to focus on the doer of the action and thus we place the agent in the
end position
b. when the agent is an inanimate being
The house was blown by a hurricane
The passive with direct and indirect object:
A long report has been given to the president.
The president has been given a long report.
Personal and Impersonal passive constructions:
when the d.o of a sentence in the active voice is a clause the change to a passive
construction is restricted.
They thought that he was brilliant
There are two possible passive alternatives for the sentence above:
→ It was thought that he was brilliant
→He was thought to be brilliant
1. Impersonal passive constructions: the object clause can be postponed and
replaced by an anticipatory it construction
The police believe that the thief left the country a few days ago (AV)
It is believed that the thief left the country a few days ago (PV)
2. Personal Passive Constructions: the subject of the object clause can become
the subject of an alternative passive construction.
The police believe that the thief left the country a few days ago (AV)
The thief is believed to have left the country a few days ago (PV)
SPECIAL CASES:
1. LET
Susan let me have a look at her notes.
I was allowed to take a look at her notes.
2. MAKE
The mother made the children clean the bedroom.
They were made to clean the bedroom.
3. SEE/HEAR
She saw the man leave the room.
He was seen to leave the room.
I heard him shout.
He was heard to shout.
4. STEAL
The thief stole her purse.
Her purse was stolen.
She was robbed of her purse.
retomar desde la página 65. agregar orden de los objetos en verbos ditransitivos
8. Classification of verbs:
There is three major types of verbs
1. Intransitive:
-it has subject
-it doesn't have an object
-they describe physical behaviour, movement or the making of sounds
-They can have
→Complete predication : S+ Vi + (Aopt) → The coach left (early, soon,at 6.30)
→Incomplete predication: S+ Vi + Aobl → I travelled south
2. Transitive
a.
Monotransitive: they take one object → I saw that play
b. Ditransitive: they take two objects, an indirect object and a direct object
→ Alice bought her mother a ticket
c.
Complex Transitive: they require an adjunct after the direct object
→ They put the ladder against the wall
→Everyone called her Molly
do Co
3. Linking: S+ V + Subject Complement
→subject complement: it can be a noun phrase or an adj phrase, and it describes
the subject.
→ the verb to be is always a linking verb.
Ditransitive verbs: depending on the position of the direct and indirect object allowed
by the verb, we can distinguish five main groups or patterns for ditransitive verbs.
1. vdt + oi + od → Pass me the salt
vdt + od + to + oi → Pass the salt to me
pass,give,pay, offer,play, sell, tell, teach, show, sing, lend
2. vdt + oi + od → Build Timmy a sand castle.
vdt + od + for + oi → Build a sand castle for Timmy.
book,build,bake,buy,cook, save,cut, find, get, keep, order,paint, save
3. vdt + oi + od → Elen wrote me a letter.
vdt + od + to/for + oi → Elen wrote a letter to/for me.
bring, leave, play,sing, take, write
4. vdt + oi + od → How do you dare ask me such a thing!
ask, cost, charge
5. vdt + od + to + oi → Can you explain the exercise to me, please?
explain, say, speak, suggest, introduce
6. vdt + od + for + oi → The florist has opened his shop (especially) for us.
cash, close, open, change, prepare
9. FORMS OF THE SUBJECT:
Subject of a sentence → always a noun or a noun equivalent ( gerunds,
pronouns, nominal adjectives )
REMEMBER
Even if the subject is made up of one word it is considered a noun phrase.
Categories functioning as head of the subject:
a. Nouns:
→ Girls love clothes.
-Locative subject(proper nouns denoting place)
→ Washington DC is the capital of the USA.
-Temporal subject(nouns denoting time)
→ Friday is my favourite day of the week.
b. Nominal Adjectives
The young are generally energetic.
The disabled should have benefits.
The unknown makes people feel scared.
c. Pronouns:
→ One cannot accept such invitation
→ Someone is singing
→ Mine was much better
d. Pronouns in Pronominal Groups
→ Some of us will stay for the weekend.
→ One of them has already left.
→ Most of the time was used for practical work
e. Gerunds
→ Smoking is bad for your lungs.
→ Sunbathing on the beach is my favourite pastime.
f. Independent Genitive Constructions:
→ Jenny´s was the most accurate.
g. Noun Clauses:
→ What he said was bad.
→ Where he is now is what I’d like to know.
h. Infinitive forms:
→ To err is human
i. Subject Understood:(generally in the imperative mood)
→ Have a look! (you)
Grammatical Subjects(3):
1. Dummy It:
-has little or no meaning
-function: place filler
-signify: a. time → It is late.
b.weather conditions → It is raining.
c.distance → It isn’t a long way from one country to the other.
2. Anticipatory It:
-has no meaning and only performs a grammatical function
It can be hard to convince them.
S2(postponed s)
3. Existencial there:
-is a device used to state the existence or occurrence of sth
There is a light in the distance.
post-modifier
S2(notional subject)
There: haber → existential there : There’s a chair in the classroom.
There: ahí → adverb : There’s the chair.
10. THE NOUN PHRASE:
WORD FORMATION: nouns can be formed from other words by means of derivation
or compounding.
a. Derivation: addition of an affix to the base.
subgroup → prefix + base
arrival → base + suffix
men- man → infix
zero derivation → base + no affix : to smile (v) → a smile (n)
In some cases we find that the spelling of a noun is the same as the spelling of the
corresponding verb. → to smile / a smile → the pronunciation of the two words is =
However, there are some nouns that keep the same spelling of the corresponding
verb but the stress falls on a different syllable.
→ I don’t like the contrast of these two colours. (noun)
→ Why don’t you contrast the green of the walls with a lighter yellow? (verb)
b. Compounding: is the combination of two or more words to form a single noun.
They are written as:
a. separate words→ flower pot / grapefruit juice
b. as words linked by a hyphen→ sister-in-law
c. as one word→ schoolteacher
→ Plural form of compounds nouns:
● The compound nouns whose final element is a
mass/ uncountable noun have
no plural forms. → moonlight/ housework
● In general the first element in compound nouns is singular, the plural is added
to the second element
. → bookcase- bookcases
● When the first element is “man” or “woman” both elements adopt the plural
form. → Women drivers
Exceptions → man-holes, woman haters
● count noun + preposition/ prepositional phrase: the count noun takes the
plural form→ brothers-in-law, passers-by.
●
verb/adj + preposition: the plural form comes at the end because adj and
verbs cannot be pluralized in English→ grown-ups, sit-ins
● compound nouns
ending in -ful tend to form the plural by adding “s” at the end
→ mouthfuls, spoonfuls, cupfuls.
Although it’s possible to find the plural “s” in the first element of the
compound→ mouthsful, cupsful.
11. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS:
NUMBER:
● Irregular plural forms:
a. some nouns that end in -o add -es → hero/ heroes - tomato/ tomatoes
b. some nouns that end in -f or -fe drop this letters to form their plurals with -ves
→ loaf/ loaves - thief/ thieves
c. old plural that had survived:
-man / men
-woman/ women
-child/ children
-tooth/ teeth
-goose/ geese
-foot/feet
-mouse/mice
-louse/lice
● Latin and Greek plurals:
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