Volver a Practica de la Pronunciacion
1. Introduction
Definition of phoneme
A phoneme can be defined as a sound category or a member of a sound family. More specifically, a phoneme in
English or in any other language is the smallest contrastive phonological unit which can distinguish or contrast
word meaning and one which exhibits a simultaneous array of distinctive features. The phonemes of any language
can be divided into vowel phonemes and consonant phonemes. There are twenty vowel phonemes and twenty
four consonant phonemes in BBC English. As was mentioned in chapter two, when we transcribe words
phonemically (using phonemes or phoneme symbols) we enclose them in slant lines. To obtain the phonological
identity of a word, we transcribe it phonemically and also add stress marks on it. By indicating the phonemic and
stress patterns of the word, it is possible to distinguish it from any other word in the language. Notice the
following examples:
/dɪk'teɪʃn//'sɪmpə'θetɪk/ /lʌg'ʒʊərɪəs/
Definition of allophone
Phonemes cannot be described independently of their phonetic contexts. Members of the same phoneme family,
that is to say, the various physically distinct sounds which count as the actual realizations of a given phoneme are
called the allophones of that phoneme. Allophones are the variants of phonemes and represent the precise
articulation of vowel and consonant phonemes.
In order to fully grasp the concept of allophone it may be useful to think of its Greek etymological origin, in
which állos means other and phōnē means sound or voice. It can be said that whereas phonemes are abstract, ideal
entities (some sort of sound images our minds store when we acquire or learn a language), allophones represent the
concrete, real productions of those sounds as modified by neighbouring sounds. In other words, an allophone is a
different phonetic form adopted by one particular phoneme on the basis of its phonetic environment. This means
that depending on the quality of adjacent sounds, one phoneme may take on specific articulatory features.
Considering the phoneme /t/,for example, one tends to believe that being defined as an alveolar plosive, this sound
will invariably be realised (=produced) in exactly the same way regardless of where it appears. For this reason, we
may tend to think that this sound is identical in such words as top, stop, rotten, metal, and try, to mention a few
words. However, in each case, the sounds preceding or following affect the way /t/ is produced.
Phonemic and allophonic transcription
If we consider the pronunciation of the vowel phoneme /aɪ/ in the words “tight” and “tied”, we can perceive that
the phoneme /aɪ/ suffers variations in pronunciation due to the different phonetic environments or contexts in
which it appears. Furthermore, we can notice that a phonemic transcription of the two words cannot capture the
differences in pronunciation between /taɪt/ and /taɪd/. A similar perception you get when you pronounce the word
“pepper”; this time we feel that the consonant /p/ is not pronounced the same in the two instances in which it is
used. As with the words “tight” and “tied”, you can notice that the phonemic transcription of the word cannot
capture the difference in pronunciation of the /p/ phoneme in /'pepə/.
A general transcription, one in which symbols represent the segmental elements which function to make meaning
distinctions, is referred to as phonemic or broad transcription. In contrast, a more detailed transcription, one
attempting to capture the exact phonetic features of each sound in spoken samples is also known
as allophonic or narrow transcription. When we transcribe words allophonically we enclose them in square brackets
[ ]. In this type of transcription, details of articulation are accounted for mostly by means of the use of diacritic
symbols.
Next, we are invited to reflect on the allophonic transcriptions of the words “tight”, “tied” and “pepper”. In
allophonic transcription, the first two words can be represented as follows [taˑɪt] [ta:ɪd]. The diacritic symbols [ˑ]
[:] added on in between the two elements of the diphthong phoneme /aɪ/ capture the difference of quantity of time
or duration in the pronunciation of the same phoneme in the two words. Phonetically speaking, the diacritic
symbols [ˑ] [:] are said to show differences of length. In the case of “pepper”, an allophonic transcription of the word
can be represented ['pʰepə]. The diacritic symbol [ʰ] added on the top, right-hand side of the first instance of use of
the /p/ phoneme in the word indicates that the accurate pronunciation is one that must be made with a strong puff
of air.
Focusing on the allophonic realizations of BBC English phonemes
BBC English phonemes can undergo many allophonic realizations in speech. The pedagogic implication underpinning
the following selection of some allophonic variations of these phonemes is one that takes into account (i)
the absence of the same phonetic realizations of related phonemes in Spanish and (ii) the phonetically similar
realizations of related phonemes in English and Spanish with a very high frequency of occurrence in English.
2. Consonant allophones
BBC Consonant phonemes and their allophones
At this stage you are invited to review the chart containing the consonant phonemes (click here to access the chart).
Nearly all BBC English consonant phonemes can undergo allophonic variations of pronunciation depending on the
phonetic context where they are used. Here, the analysis concentrates on the allophones that signal articulatory
detail in the pronunciation of a group of consonant phonemes. More specifically, the features of (i) aspiration, (ii)
devoicing, (iii) release types, (iv) variations of place of articulation and (v) syllabicity, as they affect some consonant
phonemes, are dealt with in this section. Indications of how each feature is marked in the allophonic transcription
are also given.
3. Aspiration and Unaspiration
This articulatory feature refers to the extra puff of air with which the three voiceless plosive phonemes /p, t, k/ are
pronounced in BBC English when they are followed by vowel phonemes or consonant phonemes /w, r, l, j/ in
prominent syllables. The diacritic symbol to mark aspiration is [ʰ]. This diacritic is only used when /p, t, k/ are
followed by vowel phonemes in prominent syllables:
[ɪm'pʰɔ:tnt] [dɪk'tʰeɪʃn] ['kʰæri]
When /p, t, k/are preceded by /s/ in prominent syllables, aspiration does not take place, thus,
['spɔɪlɪŋ] [ɪk'spens] [ɪn'stɔ:l]
When /p, t, k/ are followed by /w, r, l, j/ in prominent syllables, the symbol of aspiration is not used. The feature of
aspiration does take place but it is not marked with [ʰ]. For matters of convention, to signal how these consonant
phonemes are affected by aspiration, another diacritic is used (see devoicing on the following page).
4. Devoicing Group C
This articulatory feature refers to the loss of the voicing (vibration of the vocal folds) that characterizes
voiced consonant phonemes in certain phonetic contexts. At this stage you may wish to review the voiced
consonant phonemes of BBC English. Below are the phonemic symbols that represent all of them.
Consonant phonemes of Group B (voiced)
b
d
g
v
ð
z
dʒ
Consonant phonemes of Group C (voiced)
m
n
ŋ
l
r
j
w
As you can notice, there are two groups of voiced consonants: voiced consonants of Group B and voiced
consonants of Group C. The feature of devoicing affects the two groups in different ways but the diacritic
symbol used to mark it remains the same for the cases of devoicing in both groups. Devoicing is marked [∘]
in allophonic transcription. Next, the rules for marking devoicing are provided and exemplified.
Devoicing of consonant phonemes of Group C
Only a group of consonant phonemes are devoiced. Devoicing affects /l, r, j, w/ when they are preceded by
aspirated / p, t, k /. (See what was said earlier in connection with the feature of
aspiration). Examples:
['kr
̥
aɪɪŋ] [pl
̥
eɪs] [ə'tj
̥
u:n] ['kw
̥
estʃn]
5. Devoicing Group B
Devoicing of consonant phonemes of Group B
All consonant phonemes of Group B are devoiced after and before pauses or after and before voiceless
consonants of Group A. To exemplify how to find examples of devoicing of consonant phonemes of Group B,
a text is given. The italicized parts contain the examples of devoicing in focus:
'Bob’s (1) a 'famous 'film director. He’s 'married to (2) a 'young 'doctor called 'Alice. 'They (3) 'both live in
'London with their 'three 'kids. (4) 'Alice 'loves 'gardening and 'always 'watches the 'weather report to
'know about the (5) 'weather. He 'visited 'Paris (6) 'seven 'months ago and 'brought her some
'strange 'seeds. (7) She’s 'planted 'some (8) in the 'back 'yard (9).
1. [//b
̥
ɒbz] is devoiced because it is used after a pause.
2. [mærɪd
̥
tu] is devoiced because it is used before a
voiceless consonant phoneme of Group A.
3. [//ð
̥
eɪ] is devoiced because it is used after a pause.
4. [kɪdz
̥
//] is devoiced because it is used before a pause.
5. [əbaʊt ð
̥
ə] is devoiced because it is used after a voiceless
consonant phoneme of Group A.
6. [vɪzɪtɪd
̥
pærɪs] is devoiced because it is used before a
voiceless consonant phoneme of Group A.
7. [streɪndʒ
̥
si:dz
̥
//] [dʒ
̥
] is devoiced because it is used before a voiceless consonant phoneme of Group A
and [z
̥
] is devoiced because it is used before a pause.
8. [ʃiz
̥
plɑ:ntɪd
̥
sm] [z
̥
] is devoiced because it is used before a voiceless consonant phoneme of Group A and
[d
̥
] is also devoiced because it is used before a voiceless consonant phoneme of Group A.
9. [jɑ:d
̥
//] [d
̥
] is devoiced because it is used before a pause.
6. Types of release
This articulatory feature refers to the different ways in which the six plosive phonemes of BBC English
release the air depending on the phonetic context where they are used. Below are the phonemic symbols
that represent all of them.
p
b
t
d
k
g
There are four types of release that can affect plosives. Next, the different types are explained and
exemplified. Indications of how they are marked in allophonic transcription are also given.
Oral release
The six plosives have oral release when followed by vowels or semiconsonants /w, j/. Oral release is left
unmarked in allophonic transcription.
Example: [wi 'fi:ld ɪt 'ɪn]
Non-audible release
The six plosives have non-audible release when they are used in clusters formed by two consecutive plosives
or plosive + affricate. This type can take place not only within words but also at word boundary. Non-audible
release is marked [‿] in allophonic transcription.
Examples:
Inside a word: [stɒp‿t] [lʊk‿t]
At word boundary: [ðæt‿'beɪbi] ['stɒp‿'tʃəʊkɪŋ]
Nasal release
The six plosives have nasal release when they are followed by nasal phonemes /m, n/. This type can take
place not only within words but also at word boundary. Nasal release is marked [‿] in allophonic
transcription.
Examples:
Inside a word: [kʊd‿nt] ['tɒp‿məʊst]
At word boundary: [ət‿'naɪt] [aɪ 'laɪk‿'məʊst əv ðm]
Lateral release
Only /t, d/ have lateral release when they are followed by /l/. This type can take place within words or at
word boundary as well. Lateral release is marked [‿] in allophonic transcription.
Examples:
Inside a word: ['met‿l] ['med‿l]
At word boundary: [aɪd‿laɪk] [ðæt‿lɪt‿l bɔɪ]
Notice that the following example includes the three types of release marked [‿] in allophonic
transcription:
[wid‿'laɪk‿tə 'spi:k tə ðæt‿'mænɪdʒə]
7. Variations of place of articulation
As you may have noticed, consonant allophones can be classified according to which dimension of the
articulation of sounds they impact on. There are allophones affecting manner of
articulation. Aspiration and types of release are two examples. Devoicing, for instance, is a feature that
affects the voicing aspect of consonants in Groups B and C.
Here is a discussion of variations of place of articulation. You will learn about allophonic phenomena in
which a group of BBC English consonant phonemes are conditioned by their phonetic context in such a way
that they vary their place of articulation. The most important cases involve four processes, which are
presented below.
1) Dentalization
The alveolar consonant phonemes /t, d, n, l/ are dentalized when they are followed by the dental consonant
phonemes /ð, θ/ within words or at word boundary. Dentalization is marked [ ̪] in allophonic transcription [t
̪
]
[d
̪
] [n
̪
] [l
̪
].
Examples:
Inside a word: [ten
̪
θ] [wɪd
̪
θ]
At word boundary: [ɔl
̪
θru:] [ɪn
̪
ðə] [ət
̪
ðə]
2) Labiodentalization
The nasals /m, n/ are labiodentalized when they are followed by labiodental consonant phonemes /f, v/
within words or at word boundary. Labiodentalization is marked [ɱ] in allophonic transcription.
Examples:
Inside a word: ['kʌɱfət] [ɪɱ'vaɪt]
At word boundary: ['tɪɱ 'vəʊtɪd] [ɪɱ 'fəʊkəs]
It is interesting to note a few facts about this allophone. As well as in English, this feature occurs in Spanish
and other languages. One word that illustrates this sound in our language is enfatizar [eɱfatiˈsaɾ].
Another aspect worth considering, particularly from the transcription point of view is that this is an
allophonic symbol proper, that is to say, we do not use the typical diacritic marks that we employ with other
realisations. We must recall that the same symbol is used to represent the realisations of /m/ and /n/;
therefore, two phonemes in this context are produced as only one allophone. Also, from the articulatory
point of view, we should remember that when we produce this feature, there is a gesture similar to the one
we do when biting our lower lip" as is shown below:
3) Postalveolar articulation
The alveolars /t, d, n, l/ are articulated in the post-alveolar area of the mouth when they are followed by the
post-alveolar consonant phoneme /r/ within words or at word boundary. Post-alveolar articulation is
marked [ ̠ ] in allophonic transcription [t
̠
] [d
̠
] [n
̠
] [l
̠
].
Examples:
Inside a word: ['bɔ:l
̠
ru:m] ['kʌn
̠
t
̠
ri] ['lɔ:n
̠
d
̠
ri]
At word boundary: [bɪ'gɪn
̠
'raʊz] ['sed
̠
'red]
4) Types of /l/
The /l/ sound can be pronounced in at least two different ways. These allophonic realisations are commonly
known as Clear /l/ and Dark /l/.
a) Clear /l/
In this case, the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge and the sides are lowered to allow air to escape
down the sides of the tongue (recall its classification as a lateral consonant). This pronunciation occurs when
/l/ appears before vowel sounds or or the semi-vowel /j/. This feature could also be referred to as alveolar-
only /l/, as it requires only that place of articulation. The symbol used to represent this allophone is the
same as "l", but with the usual square brackets indicating the actual realisation: [l]
Examples:
[læmp] - [ˈjeləʊ] - [kɔ:l aʊt]
b) Dark /l/
In some phonetic contexts, the /l/ sound keeps the alveolar articulation as the primary one, where the main
stricture occurs, but adds an additional, secondary contact, at the back of the mouth, towards the
velum. This realization of /l/ happens when the phoneme precedes consonant sounds, the semi-vowel /w/
or pauses. Because of the influence of the secondary place of articulation, this pronunciation is known
as velarised /l/. This allophone is said to represent a case of DOUBLE ARTICULATION of the same sound.
The symbol to represent it is the one for "l" with a tilde across it [ɫ].
Examples:
[wɪsɫ] - [maɪˈseɫf] - [ɔ:ɫweɪz]
8. Syllabicity
In general terms, in almost all languages, syllables usually have a vowel sound at their centre and may have
one or more consonants preceding and following the vowel. However, in English, we can find syllables which
do not contain any vowel sound at all. When vowel phonemes are omitted in unstressed syllables and
consonant phonemes function as the central elements in those syllables, the result refers to the articulatory
feature called syllabicity. If a vowel is omitted or elided, the consonant that takes its place is called syllabic.
Some syllabic consonants have practically become obligatory in present-day speech; for example, in words
such as ‘bottle’ and ‘button’ (/bɒtl
̩
/, /bʌtn
̩
/). The alternative /bɒtəl/ and /bʌtən/ would not sound
acceptable in BBC pronunciation (Roach, 2011).
Syllabicity is marked [ˌ] in allophonic transcription. The most important syllabic consonants in English are [l
̩
]
and [n
̩
].
Examples:
[pɑ:sl
̩
] [pedl
̩
] [kʌpl
̩
] [bʌtn
̩
] [sevn
̩
] [ˈfæʃn
̩
]
ALLOPHONES.docx
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